Korabl 5 (U.S.S.R.) [aka Mars-1960B]
Objective: Mars flyby mission
Launched: Oct. 14, 1960 Launch Vehicle: A-2-e (Molniya)
Mass: 850 kg?
Results: Failed to reach earth orbit
Notes: Failure was announced by the U.S. in 1962
Korabl 11 (U.S.S.R.) [aka Mars-1962A]
Objective: Mars flyby mission
Launched: Oct. 24, 1962 Launch Vehicle: A-2-e (Molniya)
Mass: 894 kg?
Apogee: 217 km Perigee: 196 km
Inclination: 65° Period: 89 min.
Results: Failed to leave earth orbit and reentered on 10/29
Korabl 13 (U.S.S.R.) [aka Mars-1962B]
Objective: Mars flyby mission
Launched: Nov. 4, 1962 Launch Vehicle: A-2-e (Molniya)
Mass: 894 kg?
Apogee: 158 km Perigee: 136 km
Inclination: 65° Period: 87.7
Results: Failed to leave earth orbit and reentered on 11/5
Kosmos 419 (U.S.S.R.)
Objective: Mars orbit/landing
Launched: May 10, 1971 Launch Vehicle: D-1-e (Proton)
Mass: 4,650 kg
Apogee: 174 km Perigee: 159 km
Inclination: 51.4° Period: 88.7 min.
Results: Failed to leave earth orbit and reentered on 5/12
Notes: 1st use of the D-1e booster for a planetary mission. The larger launch vehicle allowed the launch of a heavier payload.
Mariner 3 (U.S.)
Objective: Mars flyby
Launched: Nov. 5, 1964 Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Agena D
Mass: 261 kg
Aphelion: 0.8155 AU Perihelion: 1.6150 AU
Inclination: 0.524° Period: 448.7 days
Results: Experienced booster failure when the shroud did not jettison and ceased functioning soon after launch (unable to open solar panels to receive energy). Drifted into solar orbit and the battery power failed 8 hr. 43 min. after launch.
Mariner 4 (U.S.)
Objective: Mars flyby
Launched: Nov. 28, 1964 Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Agena D
Mass: 261 kg
Apogee: 184.2 km Perigee: 172.2 km
Inclination: 28.3°
Trans-Mars Interval: 228 days
Mars Flyby: 7/15/65 Distance: 9,844 km (6,118 mi.)
Description: Main body consisted of a 138.4 cm-diameter, 45.7 cm-high octagonal magnesium frame. Seven compartments contained electronics and an eighth contained the 220 N hydrazine course correction system. A high-gain dish antenna was mounted atop the base and a low-gain antenna was mounted on top of an aluminum tube. Attitude jets were mounted on the solar panel tips. Overall spacecraft height was 2.89 m.
Power: Provided by four solar arrays, spanning 6.88 m, and a 1,200 W-hr. silver-zinc battery.
Scientific payload: Meteoroid detector (0.95 kg), cosmic ray telescope (1.2 kg), ionization chamber (1.3 kg), magnetometer (3.1 kg), trapped radiation detector (1.0 kg), solar plasma probe (2.9 kg)
Other equipment: TV system (5.1 kg) consisting of a single TV camera on a scan platform with an f/8, 30.5 cm-focal-length Cassegrain telescope
Results: 1st successful Mars flyby. Returned the 1st close-up photographs of the Martian surface (22 total). Discovered lunar-style craters on the surface, measured the ionosphere and atmosphere, and determined that carbon dioxide was the major constituent of the atmosphere. Indicated that the surface pressure on Mars was 5 mb (scientists had expected anything up to 80 mb), found that the daytime temperature on the surface was around 100°C, and determined that the magnetic field was about 0.1% that of Earth.
Mariner 6 (U.S.)
Objective: Mars Flyby
Launched: Feb. 24, 1969 Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur
Mass: 413 kg
Trans-Mars Interval: 156 days
Mars Flyby: 7/31/69 Distance: 3,431 km (2,131 mi.)
Description: Main body consisted of a 138.4 cm-diameter, 45.7 cm-high octagonal magnesium frame. Seven compartments contained electronics and an eighth contained the 220 N hydrazine course correction system. A high-gain dish antenna was mounted atop the base and a low-gain antenna was mounted on top of an 2.23 m tube. Attitude jets were mounted on the solar panel tips. Overall spacecraft height was 3.34 m.
Power: Provided by four solar arrays, spanning 5.79 m, and a 1,200 W-hr silver-zinc battery.
Scientific payload: Infrared radiometer, infrared spectrometer, ultraviolet spectrometer (total instrument mass: 59 kg)
Other equipment: TV system consisting of wide (52 mm) and narrow (508 mm) angle TV cameras carried on a scan platform. The platform moved to 70° in elevation and 215° in azimuth and was controlled by a reprogrammable computer.
Results: Successful Mars flyby & photography. Acquired data on Mars using a visual imager, ultraviolet spectrometer, and temperature sensors. The radiometer recorded surface temperatures at the equator that were -73°C at night with a low temperature of -125°C at the southern pole. Data returned recorded a surface pressure of 6-7 mb and indicated that CO2 comprised 98% of the Martian atmosphere.
Notes: First Mariner launched using Atlas-Centaur launch vehicle.
Mariner 7 (U.S.)
Objective: Mars Flyby
Launched: Mar. 27, 1969 Launch Vehicle: Atlas Centaur
Mass: 413 kg
Trans-Mars Interval: 133 days
Mars Flyby: 8/5/69 Distance: 3,430 km (2,130 mi.)
Description: Main body consisted of a 138.4 cm-diameter , 45.7 cm-high octagonal magnesium frame. Seven compartments contained electronics and an eighth contained the 220 N hydrazine course correction system. A high-gain dish antenna was mounted atop the base and a low-gain antenna was mounted on top of an 2.23 m tube. Attitude jets were mounted on the solar panel tips. Overall spacecraft height was 3.34 m.
Power: Provided by four solar arrays, spanning 5.79 m, and a 1,200 W-hr silver-zinc battery.
Scientific payload: Infrared radiometer, infrared spectrometer, ultraviolet spectrometer (total instrument mass: 59 kg)
Results: Successful Mars flyby & photography
Notes: Together, Mariner 6 and Mariner 7 returned 143 analog pictures on their approaches to Mars, they returned 58 photos during flyby, and made close-up photos of 20% of the surface; they measured daytime and nighttime surface temperatures and confirmed the presence of CO2, ionized CO2, atomic hydrogen, and slight traces of molecular oxygen.
Mariner 8 (U.S.) [aka Mariner H]
Objective: Mars flyby
Launched: May 8, 1971 Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur
Mass: 997.9 kg
Description: Main body consisted of a 138.4 cm-diameter, 45.7 cm-high octagonal magnesium frame.
Power: Provided by four solar arrays, spanning 6.89 m, and a 20 amp-hr nickel-cadmium battery.
Results: Centaur stage failed and the spacecraft fell into the Atlantic
Mariner 9 (U.S.)
Objective: Mars orbiter
Launched: May 30, 1971 Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur
Mass: 997.9 kg
Trans-Mars Interval: 167 days Mars Orbit Insertion: 11/14/71
Description: Main body consisted of a 138.4 cm-diameter, 45.7 cm-high octagonal magnesium frame.
Power: Provided by 4 solar arrays (215 x 90 cm) spanning 6.89 m, and a 20 amp-hr. nickel-cadmium battery
Scientific payload: ultraviolet spectrometer (15.9 kg), infrared radiometer (3.6 kg), infrared interferometer spectrometer (23 kg)
Other equipment: TV system (25.8 kg) consisted of two cameras -- a 508 mm, f/2.35 narrow angle camera which could produce a resolution of up to 1 km and a 50 mm, f/4 camera with a filter wheel for color and polarization studies to cover wide areas. Both were mounted on a scan platform.
Results: 1st spacecraft to orbit another planet (orbited Mars on 11/14/71). Showed Mars to be a diverse planet of large volcanoes, rift valleys and cratered regions. Discovered Olympus Mons, the solar system's largest shield volcano, and Valles Marineris, a rift valley that is 4,000 km long, 100 km wide, and 6 km deep at places. Also photographed the moons of Mars, Phobos and Deimos. Did not find evidence of canals, but did record the presence of natural channels and riverbeds that had been carved by the flow of water during Mar's history. Detected water vapor in the atmosphere above the south polar cap and returned evidence that suggested that the cap consists of a 300 km-wide water-ice layer which is hidden in winter by a 3,000 km-wide layer of frozen carbon dioxide. Determined that the atmosphere is currently too thin to support free surface water. Mariner 9's radio occultations measured the surface pressure at the equator at 2.8 mb and that at the mid-latitudes at 8.9 mb.
Mars 1 (U.S.S.R.)
Objective: Mars Flyby, primarily intended to photograph the planet from a distance of 11,000 km. Also designed to record and transmit measurements on the planet's magnetic field, radiation field, cosmic radiation, and micrometeroid impacts.
Launched: Nov. 1, 1962 Launch Vehicle: A-2-e (Molniya)
Mass: 893.5 kg
Apogee: 238 km Perigee: 157 km
Inclination: 65° Period: 88.4 min.
Aphelion: 1.604 AU Perihelion: 0.924 AU
Inclination: 2.68° Period: 519 days
Mars Flyby: 6/19/63 Distance: 193,000 km
Description: Cylindrical "bus" 3.3 meters (10.89 ft.) long and a maximum width of 1.0 m; modification of the Venera-type spacecraft; carried a parabolic dish communication antenna (1.7 m in diameter); the experiment module was cylindrical (1.0 m diameter, 0.6 m deep) and was located at the base
Power: Supplied by solar panels (1.1 m high and 0.9 m across) on either side of the spacecraft
Scientific payload: Equipped with a spectroreflexometer designed to look for indications of organic compounds on the planet. Also designed for radiowave probing of the atmosphere and the Martian surface.
Other Equipment: Carried a television system
Mission Results: Communications failed on 3/21/63, possibly due to attitude control problems. However, spacecraft broke Mariner 2's communications distance record (Mars 1 communicated from 106,760,000 km away). No pictures or data were received. Guidance systems continued to function and Mars 1 was the first spacecraft to fly within 193,000 km of Mars
Mars 2 (U.S.S.R.)
Objective: Mars orbit/landing
Launched: May 19, 1971 Launch Vehicle: D-1-e (Proton)
Total Mass: 4,650 kg (10,250 lb.) Lander Mass: 450 kg (990 lb.)
Apogee: 173 km Perigee: 137 km
Inclination: 51.5° Period: 87.5 min.
Aphelion: 1.57 AU Perihelion: 0.99 AU
Inclination: 2.2° Period: 530 days
Trans-Mars Interval: 192 days Mars Orbit Insertion: 11/27/69
Apares: 25,000 km Periares: 1,380 km
Inclination: 18.9° Period: 1,098 min.
Mars Landing: 11/27/71 Location: 44°S/47°E
Description: Consisted of an orbital bus containing a package of geophysical instruments and a landing vehicle.
Bus Description: Contained rocket thrusters for orbit insertion braking, designed to serve as an orbiting scientific station and a relay station for sending the lander's signals to Earth
Scientific payload: (Orbiter) infrared radiometer (8-40 m) to measure surface temperature and atmospheric water vapor, 3.4 cm radio receiver (to determine the density and temperature of subsoil), ultraviolet photometer (to study atmospheric emissions from atomic hydrogen, oxygen, and argon), visible light photometer, magnetometer, spectroscope to discern water vapor concentrations, infrared spectrometer to measure surface relief; (Lander) mass spectrometer, temperature and pressure sensors, anemometer, soil mechanical/chemical analyzer
Other equipment: Equipped with a "television objective" with a high resolving power (could cover enormous stretches of surface, could reveal details measuring 10-100 m in length) -- used to study the relief of the surface of the planet. Carried cameras with wide-angle and narrow-angle lenses. Spacecraft exposed 12 frames of film simultaneously, developed them, and transmitted the images to earth in digital format.
Lander description: Equipped with a panoramic television system.
Results: 2nd spacecraft to orbit Mars; lander assumed to have crashed on Mars. Highly sensitive instruments measured the parameters of the Martian atmosphere, its gas constituents, the pressure conditions in the gas envelope (how pressure varies with altitude) and recorded the temperatures of the night side of Mars.
Notes: First time the orientation and position of the spacecraft was controlled by an independently functioning control system -- consisted of an astronavigation system and an electronic computer. Data obtained was automatically fed into the onboard computer which calculated the necessary spherical angle of curvature and magnitude of direction necessary for the braking pulse band, and gave the appropriate commands to ignite the course engine. Fired a special container containing a pennant with the Soviet coat of arms -- 1st man-made object to make a hard landing on Mars.
Mars 3 (U.S.S.R.)
Objective: Mars orbit/landing
Launched: May 28, 1971 Launch Vehicle: D-1-e (Proton)
Mass: 4,650 kg (10,250 lb.) Lander mass: 450 kg (990 lb.)
Apogee: 234 km Perigee: 140 km
Inclination: 51.6° Period: 88.2 min.
Aphelion: 1.57 AU Perihelion: 0.99 AU
Inclination: 2.2° Period: 530 days
Trans-Mars Interval: 188 days Mars Orbit Insertion: 12/2/71
Apares: 190,700 km Periares: 1,500 km
Inclination: 18.9° Period: 11 days
Mars Landing: 12/2/71 Location: 45°S/158°W
Description: Spacecraft's main bus contained rocket thrusters designed to brake for orbit insertion around Mars. Bus was designed to serve as an orbiting scientific station and a relay station for sending the lander's signals to Earth
Scientific payload: (Orbiter) infrared radiometer (8-40 m) to measure surface temperature and atmospheric water vapor, 3.4 cm radio receiver (to determine the density and temperature of subsoil), ultraviolet photometer (to study atmospheric emissions from atomic hydrogen, oxygen, and argon), visible light photometer, magnetometer, spectroscope to discern water vapor concentrations, infrared spectrometer to measure surface relief, carried a French-built solar radio receiver (1 m wavelength) as part of a joint program called Stereo 1; (Lander) mass spectrometer, temperature and pressure sensors, anemometer, soil mechanical/chemical analyzer
Results: 3rd spacecraft in Mars orbit; lander failed
Notes: Spacecraft was identical to the Mars 2 orbiter/lander. The orbiter was successful, but lander communications failed immediately after landing. Could not use a conventional parachute (would melt) so they used a newly-designed and heat resistant parachute.
Mars 2 & 3 returned a significant amount of data between Dec. 1971 and Mar. 1972. They detected atomic hydrogen and oxygen in the planet's upper atmosphere and determined that the Martian atmosphere was 0.1% that of Earth. The probes determined the atmospheric content and water vapor densities, and measured the Martian magnetic field. They also returned data needed to chart a temperature map of the surface and a relief map of the terrain. Average temperatures on the surface were found to range from 13°C (55.4°F) at noon to -110°C (-230°F) at night. Atmospheric pressure on the surface was measured at 5.5 to 6 mb.
Mars 4 (U.S.S.R.)
Objective: Mars orbiter
Launched: July 21, 1973 Launch vehicle: D-1-e (Proton)
Mass: 3,440 kg
Apogee: 179 km Perigee: 147 km
Inclination: 51.5° Period: 87.5 min.
Aphelion: 1.63 AU Perihelion: 1.02 AU
Inclination: 2.2° Period: 556 days
Trans-Mars Interval: 204 days
Mars flyby: 2/10/74 Distance: 2,200 km
Description: Similar to previous Soviet Mars orbiters
Scientific payload: Probably similar to that of Mars 5; carried French-built equipment for studying solar radio emissions and proton & electron fluxes.
Results: Experienced a retrorocket malfunction and could not achieve Mars orbit. Returned photographs via facsimile scan before it entered solar orbit.
Mars 5 (U.S.S.R.)
Objective: Mars orbiter
Launched: July 25, 1973 Launch Vehicle: D-1-e (Proton)
Mass: 3,440 kg
Apogee: 174 km Perigee: 159 km
Inclination: 51.6° Period: 87.8 min.
Aphelion: 1.65 AU Perihelion: 1.01 AU
Inclination: 2.2° Period: 567 days
Trans-Mars Interval: 202 days Mars Orbit Insertion: 2/12/74
Apares: 32,500 km Periares: 1,760 km
Inclination: 35° Period: 1,493 min.
Description: Similar to previous Soviet Mars orbiters
Scientific payload: Radio telescope, radio probe, ultraviolet photometer (260 nm for ozone measurements), five photometers (2 m CO2 band, 1.38 m H2O band, 0.3-0.8 m, 2-5 m, 121.5 nm ), 2 polarimeters (0.35-0.8 m in 9 bands), infrared radiometer (8-20 m), gamma ray spectrometer, magnetometer, charged-particle detector, 3.5 cm radio receiver for measuring temperature and surface density; Carried French-built equipment for studying solar radio emissions and proton & electron fluxes.
Other equipment: TV system (52 mm and 350 mm)
Results: Orbiter was successful (4th Mars orbiter). Returned photographs with the first serious evidence that most of the Martian soil was bright red-orange in color; found an ozone layer 30 m (18 mi.) above the surface; revealed that the outermost layer of the atmosphere consisted of atomic hydrogen (20,000 km or 12,000 mi. above the surface)
Notes: After the failure of the Mars 4 bus, Mars 5 acted as the communications relays for both Mars landers (Mars 6 & 7). Mars 5 is the only Mars probe to accomplish all of its planned tasks.
Mars 6 (U.S.S.R.)
Objective: Mars landing
Launched: Aug. 5, 1973 Launch Vehicle: D-1-e (Proton)
Total Mass: 3,260 kg? Lander Mass: 1,200 kg
Apogee: 193 km Perigee: 154 km
Inclination: 51.5° Period: 87.9 min.
Aphelion: 1.67 AU Perihelion: 1.01 AU
Inclination: 2.2° Period: 567 days
Trans-Mars Interval: 219 days Arrival: 3/12/74
Landing: 3/12/74 Location: 24°S/25°W
Description: Virtually identical to the Mars 2 and Mars 3 spacecraft, except that it carried a reduced propellant load
Scientific payload: (flyby module) magnetometer, solar wind detector, micrometeorite detector, cosmic ray detector, carried French-built equipment for studying solar radio emissions and proton & electron fluxes (Stereo experiment); (lander) mass spectrometer, temperature and pressure detectors, soil chemical/mechanical analyzer
Other equipment: Lander carried a television system
Results: The lander performed as planned during descent and relayed the first direct atmospheric measurements from Mars; spacecraft communications failed immediately prior to landing (148 seconds after the parachute opened). Data relayed by the lander indicated a surface pressure of ~ 6 mb and a surface temperature of - 43°C.
Notes: The entry vehicle successfully separated prior to Mars orbit insertion; the bus retro system failed and it was unable to achieve Mars orbit
Mars 7 (U.S.S.R.)
Objective: Mars landing
Launched: Aug. 9, 1973 Launch Vehicle: D-1-e (Proton)
Total Mass: 3,260 kg Lander Mass: 1,200 kg?
Apogee: 193 km Perigee: 154 km
Inclination: 51.5° Period: 87.9 min.
Aphelion: 1.69 AU Perihelion: 1.01 AU
Inclination: 2.2° Period: 574 days
Trans-Mars Interval: 212 days
Flyby date: 3/9/74 Distance: 1,300 km
Intended Landing Site: 50°S/28°W
Description: Virtually identical to the Mars 2 and Mars 3 spacecraft, except that it carried a reduced propellant load
Scientific payload: (flyby module) magnetometer, solar wind detector, micrometeorite detector, cosmic ray detector, carried French-built equipment for studying solar radio emissions and proton & electron fluxes (Stereo experiment); (lander) mass spectrometer, temperature and pressure detectors, soil chemical/mechanical analyzer
Other equipment: Lander carried a television system
Results: The lander successfully separated from the bus, but a guidance or propulsion system failure caused it to miss the planet. The bus also malfunctioned and entered heliocentric orbit.
Mars Observer (U.S.)
Objective: Orbiter
Launched: September 25, 1992 Launch Vehicle: Titan III/TOS
Mass: 2,573 kg
Planned arrival: 8/19/93
Description: Box-shaped spacecraft 1.1 m (3.25 ft.) high, 2.2 m (7.0 ft.) wide, and 1.6 m (5.0 ft.) deep; two 6-meter (20 ft.) booms for holding scientific instruments and one 6-meter (20 ft.) boom to hold the 1.45 meter (4.75 ft.) parabolic main communication antenna
Scientific Payload: gamma ray spectrometer, thermal emission spectrometer, pressure modulator infrared radiometer, laser altimeter, magnetometers, electron reflectors
Other equipment: camera system that provided a daily wide-angle (low resolution) image of the entire planet, and narrow-angle (high-resolution) images of objects as small as 3 meters across; a French-built radio system to relay scientific telemetry from balloons or landers deployed by the Russian "Mars 94" mission
Results: Communications with the spacecraft were lost on 8/21/93 during a maneuver that involved pressurization of the propulsion system. Because the spacecraft's transmitter was turned off during this maneuver it was difficult to determine the exact nature of the spacecraft failure.
Phobos 1 (U.S.S.R.)
Objective: Orbiter/lander designed to study Mars and the Martian moon Phobos
Launched: July 7, 1988 Launch vehicle: Proton
Mass: 6,220 kg (13,684 lb.)
Description: Consisted of an orbiter and a fixed site lander; the spacecraft was a new design which succeeded the "Venera" design used since the early 1970's
Scientific Payload: solar x-ray and ultraviolet telescopes, neutron spectrometer, Grunt radar experiment designed to study the surface relief of Phobos; (lander) x-ray/alpha spectrometer to provide information on the chemical element composition of the surface of Phobos, seismometer to determine the internal structure of Phobos, "Razrez" penetrator with temperature sensors and an accelerometer for testing the physical and mechanical properties of the surface
Results: Conducted studies of the sun and the interplanetary environment en route; on 8/31/88 a command was sent to the spacecraft which omitted one character -- the computer command caused the spacecraft to shut off its attitude control system, the spacecraft tumbled and was unable to recharge its batteries; contact was lost when the power ran out
Phobos 2 (U.S.S.R.)
Objective: Orbiter/lander designed to study Mars and the Martian moon Phobos
Launched: July 12, 1988 Launch vehicle: Proton
Mass: 6,220 kg (13,684 lb.)
Mars orbit insertion: 1/29/89
Description: Consisted of an orbiter, a fixed site lander, and a "hopper" mobile lander; the spacecraft was a new design which succeeded the "Venera" design used since the early 1970's
Scientific Payload: infrared spectrometer; (lander) x-ray/alpha spectrometer to provide information on the chemical element composition of the surface of Phobos, seismometer to determine the internal structure of Phobos, "Razrez" penetrator with temperature sensors and an accelerometer for testing the physical and mechanical properties of the surface; (hopper) x-ray spectrometer, magnetometer, accelerometer
Results: Conducted studies of the sun and the interplanetary environment en route; successfully achieved orbit around Mars and studied the Martian surface, atmosphere, and magnetic field; transmitted data indicating that Phobos is most likely a former asteroid, that the once thick Martian atmosphere may have been eroded by the solar wind, and that significant amounts of water remain chemically locked in the Martian soil. Communications with the spacecraft were lost on 3/27/89, just prior to its planned encounter with Phobos.
Viking 1 (U.S.)
Objective: Mars orbit/landing -- soft-land on Mars, search for presence of life, compare orbital and surface data
Launched: Aug. 20, 1975 Launch vehicle: Titan-Centaur
Orbiter mass: 2,328 kg at launch
Lander mass: 663 kg at launch, 612 kg at landing
Mars orbit insertion: 6/19/76
Apares: 32,600 km Periares: 1,500 km
Inclination: 33.4° Period: 24.6 hrs.
Trans-Mars Interval: 304.1 days
Mars landing: 7/20/76 Location: 22.483°N/47.94°W
Description: Consisted of an orbiter and a lander. Orbiter was similar to Mariner 9, except that it had a larger engine section. Octagonal bus 45.72 cm high, with alternating sides of 139.7 cm and 50.8 cm. Consisted of 16 modular compartments -- each of the 4 long sides had 3 compartments, and each of the 4 short sides had 1. Overall height of the spacecraft, from the base of the lander attachment to the top of the launch vehicle attachment was 3.29 m.
Lander description: Triangular 3-leg lander with a height of 102 cm and a width of 284 cm (less instruments). Had a hemispherical bioshell that was 360 cm in diameter and a conical 70° half-angle aeroshell/heat shield that was 350 cm diameter.
Power: (orbiter) 2 solar panels, 157 x 123 cm with a span of 9.75 m. 2 nickel-cadmium, 30 amp-hr. batteries; (lander) 2 radioisotope thermal generators (90 W) and 4 nickel-cadmium, 8 amp-hr batteries
Scientific Payload: (orbiter) Mars atmospheric water detector, infrared thermal mapper; (lander) gas chromograph mass spectrometer, x-ray fluorescence spectrometer, seismometer, biological lab (pyrolitic release, labeled release, gas-exchange release), weather station (temperature, pressure, wind velocity); (aeroshell) retarding potential analyzer, upper-atmosphere mass spectrometer
Results: 1st Mars soft landing, 1st surface pictures, 5th orbiter. See Viking 2 notes for project results.
Viking 2 (U.S.)
Objective: Mars orbiter/landing -- soft-land on Mars, search for presence of life, compare orbital and surface data
Launched: Sept. 9, 1975 Launch vehicle: Titan-Centaur
Orbiter mass: 2,328 kg at launch?
Lander mass: 663 kg at launch?, 612 kg at landing?
Mars orbit insertion: 8/7/76
Inclination: 55° Period: 27.4 hrs.
Trans-Mars Interval: 332.7 days
Mars landing: 9/3/76 Location: 47.968°N/225.71°W
Description: Consisted of an orbiter and a lander. Orbiter was similar to Mariner 9, except that it had a larger engine section. Octagonal bus 45.72 cm high, with alternating sides of 139.7 cm and 50.8 cm. Consisted of 16 modular compartments -- each of the 4 long sides had 3 compartments, and each of the 4 short sides had 1. Overall height of the spacecraft, from the base of the lander attachment to the top of the launch vehicle attachment was 3.29 m.
Lander description: Triangular 3-leg lander with a height of 102 cm and a width of 284 cm (less instruments). Had a hemispherical bioshell that was 360 cm in diameter and a conical 70° half-angle aeroshell/heat shield that was 350 cm diameter.
Power: (orbiter) 2 solar panels, 157 x 123 cm with a span of 9.75 m. 2 nickel-cadmium, 30 amp-hr. batteries; (lander) 2 radioisotope thermal generators (90 W) and 4 nickel-cadmium, 8 amp-hr batteries
Scientific Payload: (orbiter) Mars atmospheric water detector, infrared thermal mapper; (lander) gas chromograph mass spectrometer, x-ray fluorescence spectrometer, seismometer, biological lab (pyrolitic release, labeled release, gas-exchange release), weather station (temperature, pressure, wind velocity); (aeroshell) retarding potential analyzer, upper-atmosphere mass spectrometer
Results: 2nd Mars soft landing, 2nd surface pictures, 6th Mars orbiter
Notes: The Viking landers were the first to successfully land on the Martian surface. They revealed that the daytime sky was pinkish, rather than dark blue as had been assumed. The landers returned more than 4,500 pictures and the orbiters returned 51,539 images, mapping 97% of the surface at a resolution of 300 m and 2% of the surface at a resolution of 25 m or better.
Zond 2 (U.S.S.R.)
Objective: Designed to land or impact on Mars
Launched: Nov. 30, 1964 Launch Vehicle: A-2-e (Molniya)
Mass: 907 kg? (assumption based on Mars 1)
Apogee: 191 km Perigee: 174 km
Inclination: 65° Period: 88.15 min.
Mars Flyby: 8/6/65 Distance: 1,500 (1,497 km/930 mi.)
Description: Equipped with a set of six experimental plasma (electronic ion) engines designed to assist in attitude control
Results: Experienced a communications failure in early May 1965
Zond 3 (U.S.S.R.)
Objective: Believed to be a Mars probe
Launched: July 18, 1965
Mass: 960 kg
Apogee: 209 km Perigee: 163.5 km
Inclination: 64.78° Period: 88.42 min.
Scientific Payload: ultraviolet spectrograph (250-350 nm), ultraviolet and infrared spectrograph (190-270 nm, 3-4 m), meteoroid detectors, radiation sensors (cosmic rays, solar wind), magnetometer, ion thrust test, radiotelescope
Results: Designed as a systems test vehicle, the spacecraft was still communicating when it passed through the orbit of Mars, but it was too distant from the planet to record data; Successfully photographed the lunar far side; included experiments to determine magnetic field properties, infrared studies of the moon's surface, micrometeorite size and frequency, and cosmic ray properties.
Unannounced spacecraft (U.S.S.R.) [aka Mars-1969A]
Objective: Believed to be a Mars probe
Launched: Mar. 27, 1969 Launch Vehicle: D-1-e (Proton)
Mass: 3,500 kg?
Results: May have experienced a booster failure.
Unannounced spacecraft (U.S.S.R.) [aka Mars-1969B]
Objective: Believed to be a Mars probe
Launched: Apr. 14, 1969 Launch Vehicle: D-1-e (Proton)
Mass: 3,500 kg?
Results: May have experienced a booster failure.
Definitions:
Apicenter: Point on orbit furthest from the primary (i.e., apogee for earth orbit, apihelion for solar orbit, and apares for Mars orbit)
Pericenter: Point on orbit closest to the primary (i.e., perigee for earth orbit, perihelion for solar orbit, and periares for Mars orbit)
Appendix Sources:
Norman L. Baker, Soviet Space Log: 1957-1967 (Washington, D.C.: Space Publications, Inc., 1967), pp. 33-34;
California Institute of Technology, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Mariner-Mars 1964: Final Project Report, NASA SP-139 (Washington, D.C.: NASA, 1967), pp. 133;
Edward Clinton Ezell and Linda Newman Ezell, On Mars: Exploration of the Red Planet, 1958-1978, NASA SP-4212 (Washington, D.C.: NASA, 1984);
Joe Heyman, Spacecraft Tables 1957-1990 (San Diego: Univelt, 1991), p. 25, 26, 79, 81;
R. Hofstaetter, "Mars 2 and 3 -- Interplanetary Stations of the USSR," NASA-TT-F-14, 256. Translation of "Mars 2 und 3: Interplanetare Stationen der UdSSR," Flug Revue #3 (Mar. 1972), pp. 41-45;
Douglas Hurt, Encyclopedia of Soviet Spacecraft (New York: Exeter, 1987), pp. 68-74;
Steven J. Isakowitz, International Reference Guide to Space Launch Systems, 1991 ed. (Washington, D.C.: AIAA, 1991), p. 106;
Nicholas L. Johnson, Handbook of Soviet Lunar and Planetary Exploration (San Diego: Univelt, 1979), pp. 243-244;
Larry Klaes, "The Rocky Soviet Road to Mars," Spaceflight 32 #8 (Aug. 1990), pp. 273-282;
Saunders B. Kramer, "A Retrospective Look at the Soviet Union's Efforts to Explore Mars," AAS-81-250, The Case For Mars: Proceedings of a Conference Held April 29-May 2, 1981 at the University of Colorado, Boulder, CO (San Diego: Univelt, 1984), pp. 269-279;
Jeffrey M. Lenorovitz, "Soviets to Study Phobos Surface From Fixed-Site, Mobile Landers," Aviation Week & Space Technology 129 #9 (Aug. 29, 1988), pp. 48-49;
Eric J. Lerner, "Mission to Phobos," Aerospace America 26 (Sept. 1988), pp. 34-39;
Eric J. Lerner, "Phobos: Gains From a Loss," Aerospace America 28 #2 (Feb. 1990), pp. 42-46;
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, "Mars Observer Fact Sheet," (n.d.);
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Viking 1: Early Results, NASA SP-408 (Washington, D.C.: NASA, 1976);
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Mars Observer Mission Failure Investigation Board, Mars Observer Mission Failure Investigation Board Report (Washington, D.C.: NASA, Dec. 31, 1993);
"Soviet Space Failures are Disclosed," Missiles and Rockets 11 #11 (Sept. 10, 1962), p. 12;
Andrew Wilson, Solar System Log (New York: Jane's, 1987).